Despite advances in gender equality, women still aren’t equally represented in top management roles. Leadership research has made strides in recognising gender dynamics, but it still relies heavily on outdated frameworks of what leadership really is. Ronit Kark and Claudia Buengeler write that the lens of the four feminist waves can help us understand better the challenges women face and chart a path towards novel, more inclusive leadership models.

As the world continues to grapple with issues of diversity and inclusion, the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles remains a pressing challenge. Despite high-profile campaigns like #MeToo and HeForShe, which have brought gender inequality into the spotlight, women still face significant barriers in ascending to senior leadership positions. Why is progress so slow? And how can we reimagine leadership in a way that fosters real equality?

In our recent paper, we explore how leadership theories have evolved alongside feminist thought. Our analysis shows that while leadership research has made strides in recognising gender dynamics, it still relies heavily on outdated frameworks of what leadership really is. By re-thinking leadership through the lens of the four feminist waves, we can better understand the challenges women face and chart a path towards more inclusive and novel leadership models.

Feminist waves and leadership theories

Our study is structured around four major waves of feminism, each offering unique insights into gender dynamics in leadership:

First wave: gender reform

Often described as “fixing the women,” this perspective argues that women can achieve success by adapting to the current system and leadership models. Gender reform feminism emphasises equal rights, assuming that women’s capabilities are identical to men’s. This wave is aligned with liberal and suffragist feminism (starting around 1848), which sought to integrate women into male-dominated spheres of work and leadership.

However, this approach has been criticised for forcing women to conform to existing male-centric leadership styles, such as autocratic, or transactional (“carrot and stick”) leadership, rather than creating space for diverse leadership approaches. The “Great Man” leadership theory, for example, assumes that certain individuals are naturally born leaders— holding stereotypical characteristics attributed to men (including also narcissistic and abusive forms of power). Women, in this view, are expected to fit into the mold of traditional leadership, often sidelining qualities that might differ from the established norm. Leadership research following this wave found that women had a high success and effectivity rate in leadership roles, scoring as high as men or even higher. However, this perspective did little to challenge the systemic barriers that hold women back from top leadership roles and to change the way we think about leadership.

Second wave: gender resistance

In this wave, focus shifts to the “female advantage,” celebrating women’s interpersonal and nurturing qualities as key leadership strengths. This wave aligns with radical feminism (starting in 1960), which calls for a revaluation of traditionally “feminine” traits in leadership. Newer models of leadership like transformational, shared and servant leadership, which emphasise empathy, collaboration, and the development of others, resonate strongly with this perspective.

In line with the second wave, the post-heroic leadership model, which moves away from the traditional “heroic” or authoritarian leader, reflects this shift. In transformational leadership, for instance, leaders motivate employees through individualised consideration, inspiration and role-modelling. Studies showed that women often exhibit more transformational leadership behaviours than men, underscoring the idea that women’s leadership styles are uniquely suited to fostering collaboration and innovation. Servant leadership, which puts followers’ needs above the leader’s self-interest, is similarly aligned with this wave’s emphasis on nurturing and empowerment.

However, while the second wave champions the idea that women’s natural qualities may be better suited for modern leadership, it also risks reinforcing gender stereotypes. By emphasising women’s nurturing qualities, this wave can inadvertently suggest that women are better suited to specific types of leadership, potentially limiting their roles in more traditional or agentic leadership settings.

Third wave: gender rebellion

Drawing on postmodern theories (starting in 1990), this wave introduces intersectionality, which explores how various social identities—such as race, gender, class and sexual orientation—intersect to shape an individual’s experiences in leadership. Coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw, intersectionality acknowledges that gender alone does not determine a person’s experience of discrimination or leadership dynamics. For example, a woman of colour or a member of the LGBTQ+ community may face different challenges and opportunities in leadership than a white, heterosexual woman.

Theories developed in this period challenge binary thinking, promoting a more fluid understanding of gender and leadership traits. The third wave critiques the rigid categorisations of male versus female leadership styles, suggesting instead that leadership effectiveness is not tied to gender but to a combination of traits that can be enacted by any leader. Paradoxical leadership theory, for instance, embraces the idea that the most effective leaders blend both communal and agentic behaviours, typically associated with feminine versus masculine traits, as well as other opposing behaviours (self-focused and other-focused simultaneously). It also highlights models of inclusive leadership and intersectionality leadership. By embracing this complexity, the third wave opens new possibilities for understanding how leaders navigate diverse and often conflicting demands.

Fourth wave: gender digital

With the rise of social media and online activism, this wave of digital “hashtag feminism” (starting at 2010), emphasises how digital platforms have empowered marginalised voices. Movements like #MeToo have drawn attention to issues of sexual harassment, gender-based violence, and inequality in the workplace, while campaigns like #HeForShe call on men to be active allies in the fight for gender equality.

However, this wave also faces challenges, such as the rise of “slacktivism”, in which online engagement may not translate into real-world change. While social media can amplify issues of gender inequality, the question remains whether these movements will result in sustained systemic shifts. Nonetheless, gender digital feminism is a powerful force in mobilising collective action and awareness, making feminism more accessible to younger generations and less privileged voices through the use of #hashtags, online forums, and digital communities.

Leadership theories following this movement, as well as the advance in AI as a major means for leadership, have started developing to explore their influence on newer models of modern leadership and how this may affect women. For example, women were found to use AI to a lesser extent than men, which may limit their power.

Leadership theories and feminist evolution

Our analysis shows that research still heavily focuses on the first two feminist waves, in which leadership success is often defined by male-dominated paradigms. For instance, autocratic and charismatic leadership styles, historically associated with men, continue to dominate leadership research. Women are frequently encouraged to “lean in” and adopt these traits to fit into established leadership models, rather than allowing space for a more inclusive understanding of leadership that values diverse qualities.

However, leadership theories from the third and fourth waves offer a more inclusive, nuanced perspective. Intersectionality leadership allows for a deeper understanding of the unique barriers faced by women of colour, LGBTQ+ individuals, and other marginalised groups. These perspectives call for leadership theories to consider not just gender but also how other social identities shape a leader’s experience and effectiveness. Meanwhile, digital leadership and paradoxical forms of power urge us to rethink how technology and social media are reshaping leadership dynamics, from the surge of a culture of social network influencers to the role of online communities in amplifying network leadership and giving rise and leadership opportunities to marginalised groups.

Towards inclusive leadership

The evolution of feminist thought suggests that the future of leadership should be more inclusive and reflective of diverse identities and experiences. Rather than focusing on “fixing the women” or expecting women to adopt male leadership traits, organisations should strive to “fix the system.” This means dismantling systemic barriers that perpetuate gender inequality, such as biased promotion practices, lack of mentorship opportunities for women and minorities, and cultural expectations that prioritise masculine leadership styles.

At the same time, the rise of digital activism and intersectionality challenges us to rethink traditional leadership paradigms. In today’s complex, interconnected world, leaders must be able to navigate diverse perspectives, foster inclusion, and embrace the complexities of identity. This requires creating leadership models that are flexible, adaptive, and capable of addressing the needs of a diverse workforce.

Re-thinking the future of gender and leadership

As we look to the future, it is clear that more research is needed to explore how leadership theories can evolve in response to modern feminist thinking. By incorporating insights from all four waves of feminism, we can develop new models of leadership that are not only effective but also equitable and inclusive..

Researchers and practitioners alike must continue to question how leadership is defined, taught, and practiced in organisations. As the workplace becomes increasingly diverse, the ability to lead inclusively will become one of the most important skills for future leaders. Only by challenging outdated frameworks and embracing the full spectrum of feminist thought can we create leadership models that truly reflect the diversity and complexity of modern society.

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• This blog post is based on Wo∼Men and Leadership: Re-Thinking the State of Research on Gender and Leadership Through Waves of Feminist Thinking, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies.
• The post represents the views of the author(s), not the position of LSE Business Review or the London School of Economics and Political Science.
• Featured image provided by Shutterstock
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