“Bunt’s latest publication is a must-read for those fascinated by the intersection between Islām, Muslims and all things metaverse” — Michael Dhanoya reviews Islamic Algorithms: Online Influence in the Muslim Metaverse by Gary R Bunt.
Professor Gary Bunt has a long history of scholarship investigating online expressions of religion and religious identity over space and time. Such prowess is on full display in his latest publication. In ‘Islamic Algorithms: Online Influence in the Muslim Metaverse’, Bunt investigates the manner in which various themes associated with Islām and Muslim identity (such as theology, ethics, politics, theocracy, social activism, lifestyle, ritual and practice) are represented throughout cyberspace. Doing so enables Bunt to develop a holistic understanding of contemporary Muslim discourse and an appreciation of the extent to which cyber and terrestrial Islamic contexts intersect and inform one another.
Each chapter addresses distinct elements of Bunt’s investigations. The first chapter sees Bunt define technical terms (such as ‘Algorithm’) and their application throughout the book. Cyber expressions of significant Islamic entities (such as Jinn and Angels) are examined throughout the second chapter. The following two chapters focus on representations of Muḥammad, his family members and political successors throughout Islamic cyber environments, with such depictions construed as reflective of their influence in offline Muslim communities.
Switching focus, much of the second half of the book is devoted to sectarian expressions of Islām and Muslim identity across cyberspace. The fifth chapter explores how Sunnī Muslim jurists belonging to a pre-digital age are able to establish and maintain an offline influence due to their online presence. Highlighting culturally diverse manifestations of Shīʿa Islām in the Muslim world, the sixth chapter outlines expressions of pertinent historical figures and their resonance among their contemporary devotees, while the seventh chapter reviews the online presence and offline influence of Shīʿa Muslim jurists. A further chapter reflects on the role played by formative players of Sufism in shaping how information about Islamic mysticism is disseminated online. Furthermore, comprising a ‘micro-area’ of Islamic cyberspace, the intersection between online and offline Jihadi activity is covered in the ninth chapter. Upon assessing the role played by Muslim influencers in the virtual realm in wider discussions pertaining to Islām, Muslim identity and authority, Bunt concludes by drawing together some conclusions regarding the role and influence of Islamic cyberspace in online and offline constructions of Islām and what it is to be Muslim, before providing suggestions for future avenues of research in the field.
There is much to be admired. Firstly, Bunt provides a comprehensive account of the digital platforms and artefacts used over time and their pertinence to the subject matter of each chapter. From Khomeini capitalising on the ‘cassette tape revolution’ in his push to develop a Shīʿa Islamic theocracy over Iran, to how contemporary Muslim influencers and political activists utilise memes to provide effective socio-religious messaging in a concise and entertaining manner. From the past use of fax machines by militant Islamic movements to fundraise, recruit and promote their ideology, to how twenty-first century Muslim technophiles seek to engage and enthuse younger audiences by producing cartoon animations of the biographies of historical Islamic personages. Bunt is thorough in demonstrating how Muslims throughout history have engaged with the latest technological advancements to make their presence felt in the virtual realm.
Bunt is correct to assert that his investigations provide only snapshot insights into these diverse spheres of Islamic cyberspace. Yet, such investigations must nevertheless be commended, as the final product is a chapter-by-chapter analysis of how a spectrum of analogue expressions concerning Islām and Muslim identity have been fused with the digital realm since the genesis of the latter, thereby reflecting the coalescence of the online and offline in shaping and informing said expressions.
Secondly, Bunt shows awareness of the fact that the majority of the world’s Muslims adhere to Sunnī Islām. Accordingly, Sunnī Muslims are oft afforded hegemonic power in the global Islamic space and are thus able to dictate the narrative presented to non-Muslims regarding who Muslims are and what issues are pertinent to them. Bunt recognises that this impacts discussions on the intersection between the digital realm, Islām and Muslims.
By the author’s own admission, the inclusion of chapters in the book specifically focusing on representations of Shīʿa Islām and Muslims in cyberspace is a conscious decision, motivated by a desire to counter the domination of all things Sunnī in contemporary discussions on Islām and Muslims. Cognisant of there being various branches of Shīʿa Islām, Bunt affords space in the book to reflect on numerous Shīʿa sects and their cyber footprint. Furthermore, the author acknowledges that various Islamic denominations are left uncovered and cites a lack of space as the rationale for their exclusion. Nevertheless, the extent of Bunt’s literacy regarding various Islamic sects is refreshing and evident throughout.
Finally, the book was partly written amid the Covid-19 pandemic. Acutely aware of the unique opportunity presented by such circumstances, the author infuses multiple chapters with reflections on the impact of the global pandemic. This is no better illustrated than when Bunt details how Sufi Shaykhs engaged in online Q&A sessions to answer various questions from their followers regarding the virus outbreak. Similarly, in the absence of being able to congregate, Muslim organisations utilised their social media platforms and numerous apps to facilitate manifestations of Islamic ritual and practice, so the book discusses how the lockdowns highlighted the importance of the online dimension in expressions of religiosity. For example, Bunt shows how the Shīʿa Dawoodi Bohrā community in Mumbai congregated online to partake in various activities, with their households mimicking the internal decor of a mosque and prayer recitals being offered online. Due to Bunt’s ability to capture the social and technological zeitgeist of the period when the book was partly written, ‘Islamic Algorithms’ truly is a product of its time.
Bunt’s focus on digital platforms as the vehicle by which Muslims are able to practise their faith forms the crux of one of Bunt’s primary suggestions for future research in this academic field. Indeed, the author notes that technology companies are making substantial financial investments in developing ever more immersive virtual reality artefacts. Relating such details to the subject matter at hand, Bunt is led to question what ought to be deemed as sacred and essential elements of expressions of religiosity. Accordingly, an intriguing question is posed regarding whether it will soon be possible for Muslims to have genuine religious experiences in virtual reality environments.
Furthermore, while Artificial Intelligence (AI) is being used to provide answers to questions posted on various cyber platforms, Bunt posits that should such tools have anti-Muslim sentiment infused within their ‘training’, the disturbing result would be the dissemination of misinformation regarding Islām and Muslims into both online and offline spaces. By revealing that traditional internet search engines compete to incorporate AI artefacts into their platforms, the author subtly suggests the need for this aspect of cyberspace to be further investigated and monitored.
Whilst affirming that the core of Islām and Muslim identity have not changed (as of yet), the content presented in ‘Islamic Algorithms’ supports Bunt’s assertion that manifestations and the practising of Islām, along with how the faith and its followers are represented to and accessed by others (including fellow Muslims) have developed in line with and often incorporate the latest developments in digital artefacts and platforms. One cannot help but agree with Bunt that those currently seeking a connection with Allāh and/or information on Islām and Muslims will have their understandings of such topics informed, shaped and guided by the content disseminated across cyberspace. Moreover, in an increasingly digital world, where the line between the online and offline becomes progressively more blurred, so too will generations to come. Comprehensive in its data collection and analysis, relevant and timely, Bunt’s latest publication is a must-read for those fascinated by the intersection between Islām, Muslims and all things metaverse.
Note: This article gives the views of the author, not the position of LSE Religion and Global Society nor the London School of Economics and Political Science.
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