With ongoing global debates on immigration, integration, and rising Islamophobia, understanding the long-term social impacts of historical events is more important than ever. Shadi Farahzadi studies the effects of the 9/11 attacks on Muslim integration, finding that in the aftermath, the intermarriage rate among Muslims fell by eight percentage points relative to other minority groups. 

The September 11, 2001, attacks profoundly altered American society, shaping attitudes toward Muslim communities in ways that extended beyond national security policies and civil liberties. One of the most overlooked yet deeply significant consequences of this shift has been its impact on Muslim marriages. These marriages—particularly intermarriage between Muslims and non-Muslims—serve as a powerful indicator of social integration, offering unique insights into how communities connect and blend across ethnic, racial, and religious lines. Examining how 9/11 influenced marriage choices provides a deeper understanding of American society, showing that a single event can reshape not just headlines or policies, but also the deeply personal decisions people make about love and family.

How intermarriage reflects social integration more widely 

Intermarriage across communities or groups is a key indicator of integration, reflecting how different communities connect and form lasting relationships. It goes beyond social interactions, shaping the fabric of future generations. When individuals from diverse backgrounds marry, their children grow up in multicultural environments, gaining exposure to different cultures, languages, and perspectives. This fosters greater cross-community understanding and broader social networks.

Conversely, a decline in intermarriage can reinforce the societal divisions that persist across generations. Unlike employment opportunities, which are shaped by policies and regulations, marriage decisions are deeply personal and often reflect societal attitudes. A rise in intermarriage suggests a society that is becoming more open and inclusive, while a decline can indicate growing social and cultural divides.

Do Muslims marry non-Muslims?

Before 9/11, American (US-born) Muslims intermarried at relatively high rates, with about 65 percent marrying outside their faith, most of them with white Americans. This notably high rate reflects both the growing integration of American Muslims during this period and the relatively small size of the Muslim community, which meant many Muslims met and formed relationships with people outside their faith. This pattern suggested a growing acceptance and blending of communities before the events of 9/11 altered the landscape.

Even though many Muslims marry outside their faith, the rate is lower than we would expect if people were choosing partners completely at random. The reluctance to intermarry seems to come more from non-Muslims than from Muslims themselves. Non-Muslims who did marry Muslims were more likely to choose highly educated partners compared to those they married within their own group. This suggests that for Muslims, breaking social barriers in marriage often required higher socioeconomic status, as non-Muslims were more open to interfaith relationships when their partner had higher socioeconomic status.

“Islamophobia is NOT an American value” (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0) by afagen

How 9/11 changed marriage patterns 

The aftermath of 9/11 led to a dramatic shift in marriage patterns among American Muslims. Rising anti-Muslim sentiment, fueled by increased surveillance, media narratives, and political rhetoric, created an environment where interfaith relationships became more difficult to form and sustain.

Data shows that the intermarriage rate among Muslims fell by eight percentage points relative to other minority groups following 9/11, with an even sharper 11 percentage point decline in marriages between Muslims and White Americans. The shift was particularly pronounced among highly educated Muslims, who previously had the highest intermarriage rates. Instead of an increase in singlehood or divorce, Muslims adapted by marrying within their own religious and cultural communities at higher rates. American Muslim men, in particular, increasingly married immigrant Muslim women, reinforcing cultural and religious ties within their communities. 

Why does this matter? 

Marriage has profound implications for social cohesion. Interfaith marriages had been an important avenue for cross-community social bonds, breaking down stereotypes and fostering mutual understanding. As these marriages declined, opportunities for social cohesion weakened, reinforcing cultural divisions. The post-9/11 shift in social attitudes created a lasting “integration penalty” for American Muslims, restricting one of the most fundamental avenues for social mixing.

Looking forward 

Understanding the dynamics of Muslim marriages provides insight into the broader challenges of integration and social acceptance in the United States. While overt discrimination can be addressed through legal protections, shifts in social attitudes, especially those influenced by major geopolitical events—require deeper studies.

Promoting positive intergroup relations, reducing stereotypes, and fostering environments that encourage social mixing can help counteract the long-term effects of shocks like 9/11. Integration is not just about economics or policy; it is deeply rooted in the personal and social fabric of society. The choices people make in their personal lives, including whom they marry, can tell us a great deal about the barriers that still exist to a truly inclusive society.

• This article is based on this CEP Discussion Paper CEPDP2059, ‘The integration penalty: Impact of 9/11 on the Muslim marriage market’. 
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• Note: This article gives the views of the author, and not the position of USAPP – American Politics and Policy, nor the London School of Economics. 
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